Methods and Compositions to Inhibit Dependence on Opioids

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides a method of inhibiting dependence to an opioid by a human subject in need thereof. The method comprises administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition to the subject during opioid therapy. The pharmaceutical composition comprises a) a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID); and b) a co-agent selected from the group consisting of: fexofenadine, ketotifen, desloratadine, cetirizine, salts thereof and combinations thereof.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to methods, and compositions, for inhibiting the dependence on opioids during opioid therapy.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Opioids are a class of drugs that include the illegal drug heroin and analgesics available legally by prescription, such as oxycodone (OxyContin®), hydrocodone (Vicodin®), codeine and morphine. Opioids are powerful pain relievers, but their use is hindered by tolerance to the analgesic effects, physical dependence resulting in withdrawal syndrome, and the possibility of addiction.

Dependence is characterized by physical or psychological withdrawal symptoms upon discontinuation of an opioid. Dependence may be independent of addiction. However, physical dependence, or the desire to avoid withdrawal symptoms, is thought to contribute to opioid addiction, particularly at later stages of addiction; whereas, a craving for the euphoric effects of opiates may dominate in earlier stages (Burns, L, Recent Developments in Pain Research, 11-136 (2005)). The somatic withdrawal signs that can occur when opioid therapy is abruptly stopped in physically dependent individuals include agitation, irritability, muscular ailments, abdominal pain, diarrhea, burning sensations, “gooseflesh,” and itching. In an effort to minimize withdrawal symptoms, patients are required to be carefully tapered off of the opioid. However, such approach requires strict monitoring throughout an extended protocol.

Due to the potential dire consequences of opioid use, there is an urgent need to enable an efficient cessation of opioid use with minimal withdrawal symptoms.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one embodiment, the present invention is a method of inhibiting dependence to an opioid by a human subject in need thereof. The method comprises administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition to the subject during opioid therapy. The pharmaceutical composition comprises a) a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID); and b) a co-agent selected from the group consisting of: fexofenadine, ketotifen, desloratadine, cetirizine, salts thereof and combinations thereof.

In one embodiment, the NSAID is aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, diclofenac, diflunisal, etodolac, indomethacin, ketoprofen, ketorolac, meloxicam, nabumetone, oxaprozin, piroxicam, salsalate, sulindac, and/or tolmetin.

In one embodiment, the NSAID is ibuprofen and the co-agent is fexofenadine. In one embodiment, the amount of ibuprofen is about 150 mg to about 900 mg, and the amount of fexofenadine is about 60 mg to about 180 mg. In one embodiment, the ibuprofen and the fexofenadine is combined in one unit dose. In one embodiment, the ibuprofen and the fexofenadine is in the form of a tablet, lozenge or chewing gum.

In one example, the NSAID is ibuprofen and the co-agent is ketotifen. In one embodiment, the amount of ibuprofen is about 1200 mg to about 1600 mg, and the amount of ketotifen is about 0.5 mg to about 4 mg, e.g., a daily dose of about 2400 mg to about 3200 mg of ibuprofen and about 2 mg of ketotifen. In one embodiment, the ibuprofen and the ketotifen is combined in one unit dose. In one embodiment, the ibuprofen and the ketotifen is in the form of a tablet, lozenge or chewing gum.

In one embodiment, the present invention is a pharmaceutical composition comprising a) an NSAID, and/or a salt thereof; and b) a co-agent selected from fexofenadine, ketotifen, desloratadine, cetirizine salts thereof and combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition is ibuprofen in an amount of about 150 mg to about 900 mg, and fexofenadine in an amount of about 25 mg to about 200 mg. In one embodiment, the NSAID is ibuprofen and the co-agent is ketotifen. In one embodiment, the amount of ibuprofen is about 800 mg to about 1600 mg, and the amount of ketotifen is about 2 mg.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

In one embodiment, the present invention is directed to methods of inhibiting the dependence on opioids in human subjects. The methods include the administration of particular pharmaceutical compositions.

Throughout this specification, quantities are defined by ranges, and by lower and upper boundaries of ranges. Each lower boundary can be combined with each upper boundary to define a range. The lower and upper boundaries should each be taken as a separate element.

Opioids are substances that act by binding to opioid receptors, which receptors are found principally in the central and peripheral nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract. These receptors mediate both the psychoactive and the somatic effects of opioids. Medically opioids are primarily used for pain relief, including anesthesia. Other medical uses include suppression of diarrhea and suppressing cough.

Opioids include opiates, which are alkaloid compounds naturally found in the opium poppy plant (i.e., Papaver somniferum). The psychoactive compounds found in the opium plant include opium, heroin, morphine, codeine and thebaine. Examples of synthetic, or semi-synthetic, opioids include hydrocodone (e.g., Vicodin®, Lorcet®, Lortab®, Percocet®, Percodan®); oxycodone (e.g., OxyContin®); fentanyl (e.g., Duragesic®); methadone (Dolophine®); pethidine (e.g., Demerol®) and hydromorphone (e.g., Dilaudid®)

Opioid therapy is the treatment of a human subject with opioids, typically a prolonged treatment with opioids, typically to achieve analgesic effects.

The methods of the present invention comprise the administration of a pharmaceutical composition to a human subject, in need thereof, in an amount which is effective to inhibit the physical dependence on opioids by the subject. A human subject in need thereof is a human who is to receive, or is receiving, opioid therapy. Administration includes administration by a physician or by self-administration.

Physical dependence on an opioid is a state of adaptation by a patient who has received the opioid for a period of time and who experiences, or would experience, withdrawal syndrome if the opioid is abruptly withdrawn or if a narcotic antagonist (e.g., naloxone) is administered. Physical dependence is a normal physiological response.

Opioid withdrawal syndrome includes symptoms which may range from mild to severe, depending on how dependent the subject is on the opioid. Dependency can be directly tied to the length of time taking an opioid, dosage amount, which particular opioid was taken, route of administration, underlying medical conditions, mental health, and certain biological and environmental factors, such as family history of addiction, previous trauma, and stressful surroundings.

Withdrawal from an opioid may roughly adhere to the following timeline, although it can vary from subject to subject. Early withdrawal symptoms typically start within 6-12 hours after last dose is taken for short-acting opioids, and start within 30 hours after last dose is taken for longer-acting opioids. Early withdrawal symptoms include: lacrimation, muscle aches, agitation, insomnia, excessive yawning, anxiety, panic, rhinorrhea, sweating, tachycardia, hypertension and fever. Late withdrawal symptoms typically peak within 72 hours after last dose is taken, usually lasting about a week, and include nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, piloerection, stomach cramps, depression, and drug cravings. Other withdrawal symptoms may include, for example, mydriasis, restlessness; tremor; involuntary movements; muscle twitches; abdominal cramps; cold flashes; substantial physical and mental fatigue; dysphoric mood; drowsiness; salivation; loss of appetite; headache; dizziness; fainting; malaise; shivering; muscle/joint pain; irritability; poor concentration; confusion; flu-like symptoms; and the like.

When administered the pharmaceutical composition, the dependence on an opioid is inhibited. One manner by which dependence is inhibited is by reducing the amount of opioid required to achieve a certain therapeutic effect (e.g., analgesic effect) for a subject. That is, the amount of an opioid given is directly related to any dependence that may develop. However, dependence to an opioid is inhibited by the methods of the present invention even if the opioid amount is not reduced.

The pharmaceutical composition is administered to the human subject, in need thereof, during opioid therapy, optionally, slightly before the commencement of opioid therapy. For example, administration is begun at most about 48 hours before the first dose of an opioid or at the time of the first dose of an opioid, and is substantially continued for the duration of the opioid therapy. Alternatively, administration can be begun at any point during opioid therapy.

In the present specification, the term “inhibit” includes “reduce” and/or “prevent” and/or “shorten duration.” That is, the methods of the present invention are considered to be effective if they cause one or more of: a reduction/prevention of dependence on an opioid and/or shortening of the duration of any dependence to an opioid. For example, dependence would be inhibited if upon cessation of opioid therapy, withdrawal symptoms are inhibited.

Inhibition of dependence can be assessed by comparing the magnitude and/or duration of dependence in a subject at two different occasions, that is, i) when administered the pharmaceutical composition during an opioid therapy; and ii) when not administered the pharmaceutical composition during an opioid therapy. An assessment is made as to the severity of withdrawal symptoms once the opioid is discontinued at the different occasions.

Inhibition of dependence can also be assessed by comparing the magnitude and/or duration of dependence in different subjects being treated with the same opioid, some of whom were administered the pharmaceutical composition during a therapy and some whom were not administered the pharmaceutical composition during a therapy. An assessment is made as to the severity of withdrawal symptoms once the opioid is discontinued between the different subjects.

Typically, dependence is inhibited by at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, or about 100%.

The pharmaceutical composition comprises a) at least one non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (“NSAID”), and b) a co-agent.

The NSAID of the present invention includes any MAID and salts thereof. Examples of suitable NSAIDs include, but are not limited to, aspirin (i.e., acetylsalicylic acid); ibuprofen (i.e., isobutylphenylpropanoic acid); naproxen (i.e., 6-methoxy-α-methyl-2-naphthaleneacetic acid); diclofenac (i.e., 2-[(2,6-dichlorophenyl)-amino]benzene acetic acid); diflunisal (i.e., 2′,4′-difluoro-4-hydroxybiphenyl-3-carboxylic acid); etodolac (i.e., (RS)-2-(1,8-diethyl-4,9-dihydro-3H-pyrano[3,4-b]indol-1- yl)acetic acid); indomethacin (i.e., 2-{1-[(4-chlorophenyl)-carbonyl]-5-methoxy-2-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl}acetic acid); ketoprofen (i.e., 3-benzoyl-α-methyl- benzeneacetic acid); ketorolac (i.e., 2-amino-2-(hydroxymethyl)-1,3-propanediol); meloxicam (i.e., 4-hydroxy-2-methyl-N-(5-methyl-2-thiazolyl)-2H-1,2-benzothiazine-3-carboxamide-1,1-dioxide); nabumetone (i.e., 4-(6-methoxy-2-naphthyl)-2-butanone); oxaprozin (i.e., 3-(4,5-diphenyl-1,3-oxazol-2-yl)propanoic acid); piroxicam (i.e., 4-hydroxy-2-methyl-N-2-pyridinyl-2H-1,2-benzothiazine-3-carboxamide 1,1-dioxide); salsalate (i.e., 2-(2-hydroxybenzoyl)-oxybenzoic acid); sulindac (i.e., {(1Z)-5-fluoro-2-methyl-1-[4-(methylsulfinyl)-benzylidene]-1H-indene-3-yl}acetic acid); and tolmetin (i.e., [1-methyl-5-(4-methylbenzoyl)-1H-pyrrol-2-yl]acetic acid).

Suitable co-agents include desloratadine (i.e., 8-chloro-6,11-dihydro-11-(4-piperdinylidene)-5H-benzo[5,6]cyclohepta[1,2-b]pyridine); fexofenadine (i.e., (±)-4-[1 hydroxy-4-[4-(hydroxydiphenylmethyl)-1-piperidinyl]-butyl]-α,α-dimethyl benzeneacetic acid); ketotifen; cetirizine; and salts of such co-agents.

The NSAIDs and co-agents include all pharmaceutically acceptable versions of the NSAIDs and co-agents, including, for example, stereoisomers and/or any mixtures thereof, all pharmaceutically acceptable zwitterions and/or any mixtures thereof, all pharmaceutically acceptable polymorphic forms and/or any mixtures thereof, and all pharmaceutically acceptable complexes (including solvates) and/or any mixtures thereof.

Salts include all salts of NSAIDs and of co-agents which are pharmaceutically acceptable (i.e., non-toxic at therapeutically effective doses). And, salts include their racemates, enantiomers, or any mixtures thereof.

Particularly suitable salts of the NSAIDs comprise alkali-metal salts (e.g., sodium and/or potassium salts), alkaline earth metal salts (e.g., magnesium and/or calcium salts), aluminum salts, ammonium salts, salts of suitable organic bases (e.g., salts of alkylamines and/or -methyl-D-glutamine), salts of amino acids (e.g., salts of arginine and/or lysine). The NSAID salts also include all enantiomeric salts formed with pharmaceutically acceptable chiral acids and/or bases and/or any mixtures of enantiomers of such salts (e.g., (+) tartrates, (−) tartrates and/or any mixtures thereof including racemic mixtures). For example, a typical salt of an NSAID is naproxen sodium.

Examples of suitable salts of the co-agents include ketotifen fumarate, fexofenadine hydrochloride and cetirizine hydrochloride.

The actual preferred amounts of a pharmaceutical composition in a specified case will vary according to the particular composition formulated, the mode of application, the particular sites of application, and the subject being treated (e.g., age, gender, size, tolerance to drug, etc.).

Examples of typical daily amounts of NSAIDs to be administered in the methods of the present invention follows. The daily amounts can be administered in one dose, or in multiple doses, typically, two doses.

Naproxen from about 110 mg to about 1500 mg: Examples of other lower boundaries of this range include about 150 mg, about 220 mg, about 275 mg, about 320 mg and about 420 mg. Examples of other upper boundaries of this range include about 580 mg, about 680 mg, about 780 mg, about 880 mg and about 950 mg.

Ibuprofen from about 100 mg to about 3200 mg: Examples of other lower boundaries of this range include about 200 mg, about 400 mg, about 600 mg, about 700 mg, about 950 mg and about 1000 mg. Examples of other upper boundaries of this range include about 1200 mg, about 1500 mg, about 1600 mg, about 2000 mg, about 2500 mg and about 3000 mg.

Aspirin from about 250 mg to about 4000 mg: Examples of other lower boundaries of this range include about 325 mg, about 450 mg, about 550 mg, about 700 mg, about 1000 mg, about 1500 mg, and about 1800 mg. Examples of other upper boundaries of this range include about 2000 mg, about 2500 mg, about 3000 mg, about 3500 mg, and about 3800 mg.

Examples of typical daily amounts of the co-agent to be administered in the methods of the present invention follows. The daily amounts can be administered in one dose, or in multiple doses, typically, two doses.

Fexofenadine from about 25 mg to about 200 mg: Examples of other lower boundaries of this range include about 60 mg, about 70 mg, about 80 mg and about 90 mg. Examples of other upper boundaries of this range include about 100 mg, about 120 mg, about 150 mg and about 180 mg. Ketotifen from about 0.5 mg to about 3 mg, or about 0.5 mg to about 4 mg: Examples of other lower boundaries of this range include about 1 mg, about 1.5 mg and about 1.8 mg. Examples of other upper boundaries of this range include about 2 mg, about 2.5 mg and about 2.8 mg, and about 3.5 mg. Desloratidine from about 2 mg to about 40 mg: Examples of other lower boundaries of this range include about 5 mg, about 6 mg and about 7 mg. Examples of other upper boundaries of this range include about 8 mg, about 9 mg and about 10 mg. Cetirizine from about 2 mg to about 10 mg: Examples of other lower boundaries of this range include about 5 mg, about 6 mg and about 7 mg. Examples of other upper boundaries of this range include about 8 mg, about 9 mg and about 10 mg.

In one embodiment of the invention, a pharmaceutical composition comprises about 800 mg ibuprofen and about 60 mg fexofenadine. The pharmaceutical composition can be administered every twelve hours beginning before the last dose of an opioid is taken, preferably by delayed release administration.

In one embodiment of the invention, a pharmaceutical composition comprises about 1200 mg to about 1600 mg ibuprofen and about 1 mg ketotifen, administered to result in a daily dose of about 2400 mg to about 3200 mg ibuprofen and about 2 mg ketotifen. For example, the pharmaceutical composition can be administered every twelve hours beginning before the last dose of an opioid is taken, preferably by controlled release administration.

The pharmaceutical composition can be administered by methods known in the art. For example, the pharmaceutical composition can be administered systemically. For the purposes of this specification, “systemic administration” means administration to a human by a method that causes the compositions to be absorbed into the bloodstream.

In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical compositions are administered orally by any method known in the art. For example, the compositions can be administered in the form of tablets, including, e.g., orally-dissolvable tablets, chewable tablets; capsules; lozenges; pills (e.g., pastilles, dragees); troches; elixirs; suspensions; syrups; wafers; chewing gum; strips; films (e.g., orally-dissolving thin films); soluble powders; effervescent compositions; and the like.

The NSAID (and/or salt thereof) and the co-agent can be supplied in combination as one unit dose, or can be supplied individually, e.g., supplied in a package with a unit dose of NSAID and a unit dose of the co-agent.

Additionally, the pharmaceutical compositions can be administered enterally or parenterally, e.g., intravenously; intramuscularly; subcutaneously, as injectable solutions or suspensions; intraperitoneally; sublingually; or rectally (e.g., by suppositories). Administration can also be intranasally, in the form of, for example, an intranasal spray; or transdermally, in the form of, for example, a patch.

The pharmaceutical composition compounds of the invention can be formulated per se in pharmaceutical preparations, optionally, with a suitable pharmaceutical carrier (vehicle) or excipient, as understood by practitioners in the art. These preparations can be made according to conventional chemical methods.

In the case of tablets for oral use, carriers commonly used include lactose and corn starch, and lubricating agents such as magnesium stearate are commonly added. For oral administration in capsule form, useful carriers include lactose and corn starch. Further examples of carriers and excipients include milk, sugar, certain types of clay, gelatin, stearic acid or salts thereof, calcium stearate, talc, vegetable fats or oils, gums and glycols.

When aqueous suspensions are used for oral administration, emulsifying and/or suspending agents are commonly added. In addition, sweetening and/or flavoring agents may be added to the oral compositions.

For intramuscular, intraperitoneal, subcutaneous and intravenous use, sterile solutions of the pharmaceutically compositions can be employed, and the pH of the solutions can be suitably adjusted and buffered. For intravenous use, the total concentration of the solute(s) can be controlled in order to render the preparation isotonic.

A preferred embodiment of the invention is an orally dissolving tablet comprising an NSAID and a coagent with or without a taste masking ingredient, diluents, etc. Such tablet can be administered without water onto the tongue leading to immediate dissolution and is absorbed gastrointestinally or buccally. Orally dissolving tablets can be formulated by a number of techniques including compression and lyophilization, as would be known to a skilled artisan.

Another preferred embodiment of the invention is a lozenge or troche comprising an NSAID and a coagent with or without a taste masking ingredient, diluents, etc. Such lozenge/troche can be administered without water, and can slowly dissolve in the mouth, or can be swallowed or chewed. Such lozenges/troches can be formulated by compression, as would be known to a skilled artisan.

The pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention can further comprise one or more pharmaceutically acceptable additional ingredient(s) such as alum, stabilizers, buffers, coloring agents, flavoring agents, and the like. In some embodiments, orally administered pharmaceutical compositions can contain breathe neutralizers, e.g., peppermint or menthol scents.

The pharmaceutical composition may be administered by controlled release. Controlled release administration is a method of drug delivery to achieve a certain level of the drug over a particular period of time. The level typically is measured by plasma concentration. Methods for controlled release of drugs are well known in the art.

The pharmaceutical compositions can be formulated for controlled release. For example, in one embodiment, the composition can be a capsule containing beadlets, wherein some of the beadlets dissolve instantaneously and some of the beadlets dissolve at delayed times due to different types of beadlet coatings. For example, a controlled release composition can be administered twice a day, twelve hours apart.

In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition comprises an active ingredient, wherein the active ingredient consists of: a) NSAID, and b) a co-agent selected from the group consisting of: fexofenadine, ketotifen, desloratadine, cetirizine, salts thereof and combinations thereof.

In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition consists of: a) NSAID, and/or salt thereof, b) a co-agent selected from the group consisting of: fexofenadine, ketotifen, desloratadine, cetirizine, salts thereof, and combinations thereof; and c) at least one carrier and/or excipient.

In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition consists essentially of the active ingredients of: a) NSAID and/or salt thereof, and b) a co-agent selected from the group consisting of: fexofenadine, ketotifen, desloratadine, cetirizine, salts thereof and combinations thereof. That is, any other ingredients that may materially affect the basic and novel characteristics of the active ingredients of the invention are specifically excluded from the composition. Any ingredient which can potentially cause an undesirable effect/side effect, including, for example, an allergic response, may materially affect the basic and novel characteristics of the active ingredients of the invention.

The following are some examples of components which may materially affect the basic and novel characteristics of the active ingredients of the pharmaceutical compositions and may be excluded from certain embodiments of the present invention: cyclooxygenase-2-selective inhibitors (i.e., COX-2-selective inhibitors) or prodrugs thereof; sedating antihistamines (e.g., phenyltoloxamine (e.g., phenyltoloxamine citrate), doxylamine (e.g., doxylamine succinate)); antiemetic antihistamines (e.g., dimenhydrinate (Dramamine®), clizines (e.g., cyclizine, meclizine), diphenhydramine (Benadryl®), promethazine (Pentazine®, Phenergan®, Promacot®), and hydroxyzine (Vistaril®)); decongestants; flunixin meglumine (i.e., banamine); 5-HT3 receptor antagonists; cough suppressants (e.g., guaifenesin, dextromethorphan); H₂ antihistamines and corticosteroids.

The aforementioned ingredients may materially change the characteristics of the present pharmaceutical composition due to unwanted effects and/or potential allergic responses.

Examples of unwanted potential effects of COX-2-selective inhibitors, or prodrugs thereof, include an increased risk in the incidence of myocardial infarctions. COX-2-selective inhibitors are compounds which selectively inhibit cyclooxygenase-2 over cyclooxygenase-1, and also include pharmaceutically acceptable salts of such compounds, and prodrugs of such compounds. A COX-2 selective inhibitor is any inhibitor for which the ratio of COX-1 IC₅₀ to COX-2 IC₅₀ is greater than 1. Examples of unwanted potential effects of sedating antihistamines, decongestants, and diphenhydramine include sleepiness, fatigue, dizziness, headache, dry mouth, difficulty urinating or an enlarged prostate and allergic reactions. Examples of unwanted potential effects of flunixin meglumine include ataxia, incoordination, hyperventilation, hysteria and muscle weakness. Examples of unwanted potential effects of 5-HT3 receptor antagonists include constipation, diarrhea, headache, dizziness and arrhythmias. Examples of unwanted potential effects of guaifenesin include diarrhea, dizziness, headache, hives, nausea or vomiting, skin rash and stomach pain. Examples of unwanted potential effects of dextromethorphan include confusion, constipation, dizziness, drowsiness, headache, nausea or vomiting and stomach pain. Examples of unwanted potential effects of H₂ antihistamines include abdominal pain, bleeding or crusting sores on lip, dizziness, fainting, fever and chills. Examples of unwanted potential effects of corticosteroids include fluid retention, edema, weight gain, high blood pressure, headache and muscle weakness.

In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition is combined with an opioid during opioid therapy, i.e., instead of being given the opioid separately. That is, an NSAID, a co-agent and an opioid are formulated into a single pharmaceutical preparation, optionally, with a suitable pharmaceutical carrier (vehicle) or excipient, as understood by practitioners in the art. These preparations can be made according to conventional chemical methods, as described above.

In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition is administered during methadone detoxification therapy. Such therapy can either be done relatively rapidly in less than a month or gradually over as long as six months.

Opioid therapy can last for about two to eight weeks, or indefinitely. During such period, the pharmaceutical composition can be administered on a substantially daily basis. Daily NSAID use has been associated with adverse gastrointestinal effects (e.g., upset stomach, ulcers). However, when the NSAIDs of the present invention are taken in combination with the co-agents, adverse gastrointestinal effects are surprisingly slight or absent. Thus, it has unexpectedly been found that the components of the compositions of the present invention have a synergistic effect when inhibiting the adverse symptoms associated with the withdrawal from opioids.

Thus, while there have been described what are presently believed to be the preferred embodiments of the present invention, other and further embodiments, modifications, and improvements will be known to those skilled in the art, and it is intended to include all such further embodiments, modifications, and improvements as come within the true scope of the claims as set forth below. 

1. A method of inhibiting dependence to an opioid by a human subject in need thereof, comprising: administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition to the subject during opioid therapy, wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises: a) a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID); and b) a co-agent selected from the group consisting of: fexofenadine, ketotifen, desloratadine, cetirizine, salts thereof and combinations thereof; wherein dependence to an opioid is inhibited in the human subject.
 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the NSAID is selected from the group consisting of: aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, diclofenac, diflunisal, etodolac, indomethacin, ketoprofen, ketorolac, meloxicam, nabumetone, oxaprozin, piroxicam, salsalate, sulindac, and tolmetin.
 3. The method of claim 1 wherein the NSAID is ibuprofen and the co-agent is fexofenadine.
 4. The method of claim 1 wherein the amount of ibuprofen is about 150 mg to about 900 mg, and the amount of fexofenadine is about 60 mg to about 180 mg.
 5. The method of claim 1 wherein the ibuprofen and the fexofenadine is combined in one unit dose.
 6. The method of claim 1 wherein the ibuprofen and the fexofenadine is in the form of a tablet, lozenge or chewing gum.
 7. The method of claim 1 wherein the NSAID is ibuprofen and the co-agent is ketotifen.
 8. The method of claim 1 wherein the amount of ibuprofen is about 1200 mg to about 1600 mg, and the amount of ketotifen is about 0.5 mg to about 3 mg.
 9. The method of claim 1 wherein the daily dose of ibuprofen is about 2400 mg to about 3200 mg, and the daily dose of ketotifen is about 2 mg.
 10. The method of claim 9 wherein the ibuprofen and the ketotifen is combined in one unit dose.
 11. The method of claim 10 wherein the ibuprofen and the ketotifen is in the form of a tablet, lozenge or chewing gum.
 12. A method of inhibiting dependence to an opioid by a human subject in need thereof, comprising: administering to the subject an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition during an opioid withdrawal period, wherein the pharmaceutical composition consists essentially of: a) about 1200 mg to about 1600 mg of ibuprofen, and b) about 0.5 mg to about 3 mg ketotifen, wherein dependence to an opioid is inhibited in the human subject.
 13. The method of claim 12 wherein the daily dose of ibuprofen is about 2400 mg to about 3200 mg, and the daily dose of ketotifen is about 2 mg.
 14. The method of claim 12 wherein the ibuprofen and the ketotifen are combined in one unit dose.
 15. The method of claim 12 wherein the ibuprofen and the ketotifen are in the form of a tablet, lozenge or chewing gum.
 16. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a) an NSAID, and/or a salt thereof; and b) a co-agent selected from the group consisting of: fexofenadine, ketotifen, desloratadine, cetirizine salts thereof and combinations thereof.
 17. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 16 wherein the NSAID is selected from the group consisting of: aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, diclofenac, diflunisal, etodolac, indomethacin, ketoprofen, ketorolac, meloxicam, nabumetone, oxaprozin, piroxicam, salsalate, sulindac, and tolmetin.
 18. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 17 wherein the amount of ibuprofen is about 2400 mg to about 3200 mg, and the amount of ketotifen is about 2 mg.
 19. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 18 wherein the ibuprofen and the ketotifen is combined in one unit dose.
 20. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 19 wherein the ibuprofen and the ketotifen is in the form of a tablet, lozenge or chewing gum. 